I’ve never been to Orissa and in general I don’t know much about eastern India outside of Bengal, so sorting out what has been happening in Orissa over the past few weeks is difficult. As I attempt to address this issue, I’m not interested in pointing fingers or arguing with religious zealots; rather, I’m interested in getting a balanced perspective on what is actually happening. (Take a deep breath. Now begin.)
Let’s start out with the New York Times, and focus on some of the basic facts. First, there has been a wave of anti-Christian violence following the vicious murder of a prominent VHP leader, Swami Laxmanananda Saraswati, and four associates. Swami Laxmanananda had been an advocate for local Hindus, and had worked against Christian missionaries and conversion in the area. Here is some of what’s followed:
Here in Kandhamal, the district that has seen the greatest violence, more than 30 people have been killed, 3,000 homes burned and over 130 churches destroyed, including the tin-roofed Baptist prayer hall where the Digals worshiped. Today it is a heap of rubble on an empty field, where cows blithely graze. (link)
There has also been violence between Christians and Hindus in five other Indian states — suggesting that what started in Orissa has the potential to turn into a communal bloodbath at the national level.
A local Bajrang Dal leader is quoted in the New York Times as saying that the violence is just a “spontaneous reaction” to the killing of a locally beloved leader, but whether or not that is so it is unclear whether Swami Laxmanananda Saraswati’s murder was motivated by Christian anti-Hindu feeling or a more generalized hostility towards organized religion associated with Maoism and Naxalism, or some mixture of the two (see this). Adding to the confusion, the Times and other news agencies have reported that local Maoists have claimed responsibility (see the Times of India), but last week three Christian tribals were arrested for the killing. According to the Indian Express, the three were in fact Maoists (as I understand it, the majority of Maoists in the area come from Christian backgrounds.).
Not that all that should matter now — the focus should obviously be on stopping any further violence from occurring, and in rectifying the wrongs that have been committed against people on both sides. The murderers of Swami Laxmanananda should go to jail, as should all those who have participated in recriminatory violence against Christians subsequently.
Another vitally important factor is the local element. This is not just a matter of Hindus vs. Christians. According to the Times, there is a pronounced local and tribal element to the polarization of the communities:
Behind the clashes are long-simmering tensions between equally impoverished groups: the Panas and Kandhas. Both original inhabitants of the land, the two groups for ages worshiped the same gods. Over the past several decades, the Panas for the most part became Christian, as Roman Catholic and Baptist missionaries arrived here more than 60 years ago, followed more recently by Pentecostals, who have proselytized more aggressively.
Meanwhile, the Kandhas, in part through the teachings of Swami Laxmanananda, embraced Hinduism. The men tied the sacred Hindu white thread around their torsos; their wives daubed their foreheads with bright red vermilion. Temples sprouted.
Hate has been fed by economic tensions as well, as the government has categorized each group differently and given them different privileges.
The Kandhas accused the Panas of cheating to obtain coveted quotas for government jobs. The Christian Panas, in turn, say their neighbors have become resentful as they have educated themselves and prospered.
Their grievances have erupted in sporadic clashes over the past 15 years, but they have exploded with a fury since the killing of Swami Laxmanananda. (link)
Knowing about the longstanding hostility between the Kandhas and the Panas in this district changes how we might think of this conflict in certain ways. For one thing, the particular configuration of the tribal relationship to “formal” religion means that it’s unfair to say that the Christian Panas are involved with a “foreign” religion, while the Hindu Kandhas have a “local” religion. In fact, both communities have changed, and tribal religious practices before the entry of formal Hinduism may not have looked much like Hinduism at all (I do not know the specifics here, but this is a common observation by anthropologists who have studied tribals; see Kancha Iliah, for starters).
Given all that, in an ideal world, the conflict would remain a local one, sorted out by local police and the courts. Unfortunately, it does not look like that is going to be the case.
Finally, the Times describes one of the most egregious incidents of recriminatory violence that has followed the murder of Swami Laxmanananda, the murder of a priest and gang rape of a nun:
Two nights after his death, a Hindu mob in the village of Nuagaon dragged a Catholic priest and a nun from their residence, tore off much of their clothing and paraded them through the streets.
The nun told the police that she had been raped by four men, a charge the police say was borne out by a medical examination. Yet no one was arrested in the case until five weeks later, after a storm of media coverage. Today, five men are under arrest in connection with inciting the riots. The police say they are trying to find the nun and bring her back here to identify her attackers.
Given a chance to explain the recent violence, Subash Chauhan, the state’s highest-ranking leader of Bajrang Dal, a Hindu radical group, described much of it as “a spontaneous reaction.â€
He said in an interview that the nun had not been raped but had had regular consensual sex. (link)
That last bit just takes the cake.
That’s right. Even now, the situation looks like god-send for BJP to capitalise on. You had a well respected swami (who is from the low caste, and had a good name for working with the tribals) killed and the usual noises emanating from the so called “secular media” and the “secular politicians” completely ignoring the murder of that magnitude. It is surreal. Even when they condemn the murder of Swami, it is kinda similar to what we see in #46 (even though he is evil and associated with RSS, he is not to be killed). That plays right into the hands of BJP / Modi. The BJP too condemns attack on Christians even if they are indulging in fraudulous conversions. It is like watching a drama unfold and repeat itself every now and then in India.
Better a plump Christian than a plump Hindu!! (even more sarcasm)
Iran, Malaysia, Indonesia, the assorted European countries, etc. where, over history, a single faith more or less replaced what was practiced earlier.
you do know that malaysia is 40-45% non-muslim right? probably not 🙂 and your qualification over history for europe is very critical. and according to the 2000 census indonesia is 86% muslim. not too much higher than india is hindu. these specific numerical details don’t rebut or really address your overall point. hinduism is certainly on the whole a tolerant religion. that being said, over the past few years there has been a subset which has not taken too kindly to the unbelievers amongst them.
is it as bad as the 30 years war? or as bad as iran. no!!! but frankly, shifting the focus from this specific barbaric case by using comparisons with past european intolerance or the savagery which is normative in much of the muslim world speaks volumes. i guess it’s not as bad as muslim wackos explaining how for the 7th century islam was really a feminist religion….
51 · Ponniyin Selvan said
dont know what you are alluding to, but i mean it unlike the latter party. and i have no idea what fraudulous, or even fraudulent, conversions mean .
my point is that even if he was inciting destruction of churches and creating unrest in the community (as that article alludes to), that is not grounds for murder. i dont know whether the state stepped in at all over all these years when unrest was brewing.
orissa is a very impoverished state with bad governance, so my guess is that the govt just let the situation escalate out of control.
Better a plump Christian than a plump Hindu!! (even more sarcasm)
which is a basic non-response, since you should know i don’t give jack-sh*t whatever primitive idol the superstitious bow down too. if a person wants to advance their lot in life i don’t begrudge them mouthing superstitious gibberish if it gets them there; i’m not in their shoes.
Ooops. I forgot to add… “Here’s something to give pause to those that would castigate Hinduism and Hindu society and call it violent, fanatic, intolerant, etc. The empirical facts speak otherwise. If Indian society, roughly 80%+ Hindu, was indeed intolerant and violent toward other faiths and persuasions we’d not have the healthy representation of Sikhs, Muslims, Parsis, Christians, etc. that we see in India today (and have seen all through history.) We’d have seen what prevails everywhere else: elimination of or reduction to a token minority of other faiths. Compare Iran, Malaysia, Indonesia, the assorted European countries, etc. where, over history, a single faith more or less replaced what was practiced earlier.” Hindu society has its disgruntled and violent elements and I’d argue they have had less of an influence than their counterparts elsewhere and the facts on the ground bear testimony to that.
that’s right, But Malaysia and Indonesia call themselves Islamic countries and are members of OIC, No luck for India though, it is searching for an utopian secular identity..
I’m not sure if the Christian missionaries in Orissa were the same ones, but this link gives you a background on the Karnataka scene –
http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?artid=oqi6n5w6kGE=&Title=What+made+Hindus+angry+in+Karnataka&SectionID=XVSZ2Fy6Gzo=&MainSectionID=XVSZ2Fy6Gzo=&SEO=NEW+LIFE&SectionName=m3GntEw72ik=
If i remember right, the Catholic Church in Mangalore also condemned this kind of ‘conversion’ propagated by the New Life missionaries.
speaking of conversions of indian tribals, happy columbus day everyone!
But Malaysia and Indonesia call themselves Islamic countries and are members of OIC, No luck for India though, it is searching for an utopian secular identity..
look, if you can get muslims not to go buck-wild and circumcise all the kufar in sight you should count yourself ahead, right? i remember a really liberal friend defending appeasing muslims by analogy to a the r-tarded kid who should be patted on the back for sorting color cubes right. if hindus use muslims as a reference to argue for their religious tolerance it’s like thinking that you had a good day at school cuz you didn’t crap your pants. people should have higher standards. in civilized countries people don’t kill each other over religion, you just have the r-tarded sector mouthing off.
granted, this looks way more complicated than just religion in terms of the causal factors.
You know what the BJP claims, even if the christians are inciting destructions of idols within their homes and creating unrest in families by converting some folks in the family, it is not grounds for violence against them. Does that sound similar to your claim ?.
12 · Brigette Gabriel said
Lets for the sake of an academic argument disregard the fact the Hinduism by nature has been assimilationist and perhaps revisionist wrt to all the kinds of unorganized religious practices in the sub-continent whether you want to call it mainstream Hinduism or not. If you just take time into account Christianity entered India with Saint Thomas in Kerala in 1st century, Portugese & French colonization and British colonization. To the extent that they intermingled with the local tribes you are right that Christianity was not alien to the tribes. But any cursory reading of Hindu mythology & cultural traditions clearly reveals the complex interactions going back ages to the Aryan invasion days. Based on that reason one cannot conclude that Hinduism is foreign to the tribals. Now there have been both positive and negative (casteism, poverty/undervelopment) interactions of tribes with mainstream Hindusim & state/govt. and that is being exploited by both sides.
61 · Ponniyin Selvan said
no.
look, here’s a non-white standard for behaving in a civilized manner when it comes to religion: Largest Buddhist Protest in Decades Rocks South Korea
south korea is 25% buddhist and 25% christian (split between protestant majority and catholic minority) and 50% non-religious. the christians are overrepresented in the social elites. there’s some tension and discrimination, and definite bias. but people don’t go buck-wild murdering each other. protest. don’t riot.
Based on that reason one cannot conclude that Hinduism is foreign to the tribals.
i think a lot of the ST and SC activists might claim that ‘brahmanical’ hinduism is an alien religion.
That’s right. India has long ways to go in that area. I just pointed out the differences between Malaysia, Indonesia and India.
ok.
Razib might want to see how much of what he said about Moornam–reacting, not much deep logic behind his statements–applies to himself and his postings. He seems to agree with the core of what I said earlier and then has to toss in a trivial fact or two to illustrate his disagreement.
Around the world, and certainly around India, those that initially welcomed or tolerated certain faiths and persuasions discovered (if at all they did) that what they welcomed or tolerated now had replaced what they had before (for good or bad; by then one had no choice but to admit it was for the good!) so who is to judge those that are preventing it from happening in their own backyard today? One can’t engage in evangelism or attempt to convert a Muslim in any of the surrounding Muslim countries, the penalty being death. Several of India’s neighbors have seen their minorities more or less disappear (and this, Razib, includes Indonesia, where if you take out Bali and some outlying islands, home to frequent Muslim-Christian violence, you have a 95% Muslim dominated country) and perhaps that explains why the focus on India amongst the evangelicals.
Either we bend over and align with the missionaries. Or we have a system that emulates what has been arrived at in the industrialised countries (incl Japan and I hesitate to include S. Korea here…another day/topic), which India can’t afford but can dream about. And meanwhile what we will have is an increasing number of the anxious and worried and angry and violent that can be easily manipulated like putty by the political forces.
The situation that worries me is when the majority of Hindus become
Rajan Parrikar’s eloquently worded riposte to Amardeep circa a year or two back comes to mind when I read the to and fro between Amardeep and his allies vs Moornam and his. Amardeep, you might want to consider what Rajan meant–and I believe he had a valid point, maybe more–and how it aligns with Moornam’s point(s).
Mira, are the comments you’re thinking of the ones Rajan Parikkar made on this post back in 2006?
If so… well… I’ll let readers decide for themselves whether or not Rajan Parikkar had a point when he accused Amartya Sen of being a bed-wetter (!), whether such a comment can in fact be described as an “eloquent riposte,” and finally, whether any of that adds to this discussion.
68 · Mira said
I believe aligning with the missionaries would require you to lie down…
Several of India’s neighbors have seen their minorities more or less disappear (and this, Razib, includes Indonesia, where if you take out Bali and some outlying islands, home to frequent Muslim-Christian violence, you have a 95% Muslim dominated country) and perhaps that explains why the focus on India amongst the evangelicals.
it’s totally specious to compare a savage majority to a savage minority. yes, muslims in pakistan and bangladesh behave savagely to minorities, so the hindu majority in india should do the same???
btw, you do know that muslims in indonesia can convert to christianity and hinduism, right? hundreds of thousands of javanese muslims converted to hinduism afte 1965.
follow up on the previous comment: i don’t want to suggest that india’s religious minorities behave like muslims in pakistan do to non-muslims 🙂 that was written too quickly (not that the non-muslims are gone, the sunni and shia are tearing into each other)
If the book ‘ satya darshini’ has even a slight bit of truth in it, then there is a good case for blasphemy here (i’m unclear if the free-speech clause will hold here, dont think most ppl will buy it in a ‘conversion context’ and especially not in india for sure).
And seeing that even a book or a movie, fiction at that, like satanic verses or da vinci code, was immediately banned as being offensive to muslims/christians in ‘secular’ india – i can understand why some hindus are absolutely pissed off that noone’s acting on these ‘conversion agents’ and their continuous diatribe (not that it justifies the violence in anyway).
But again, thats the way free speech/secularism is crudely defined and practiced in india – cant fault the people who take advantage of it (juggles between all the communities) nor not sympathise with the victims at any particular point ( again, everyone’s got their share – but here the intelligensia/media/govt does tend to paint the minorities as victims more often).
I’m sure the localisation and the violence in Orissa is much more complicated with tribes, re-conversions, maoists, etc. but isnt such a crude, malleable definition of a constitutional principle not setting the stage for all these violent action/reaction violence?
I suspect it does, but again,am not sure if i can conclusively say anything.
And seeing that even a book or a movie, fiction at that, like satanic verses or da vinci code, was immediately banned as being offensive to muslims/christians in ‘secular’ india – i can understand why some hindus are absolutely pissed off that noone’s acting on these ‘conversion agents’ and their continuous diatribe (not that it justifies the violence in anyway).
i would agree with this. it does seem like indian secularism is obsequiously accommodationist in a way which only inflames. but i guess elites need their vote banks, they’re never gonna be the ones raped & murdered.
p.s. i have muslim fundamentalist relatives who went to gujarat after the riots. all the muslim fundies were really happy about what happened because they never saw such a boon of new recruits and the segregation from hindus was what they wanted in the first place. really disturbing to see my uncle grinning broadly about the outcome of the riots.
69 · Amardeep said
I believe this is a honest misunderstanding. Rajan, as was his wont, was lurking around a sleeping Sen trying to see if the allegations held water, when, in a dream, Sen called out to his father, “Ashu Ashu”. However, a life-long lisp due to a bout of mouth cancer during Amartya’s undergraduate days only resulted in his saying “Su Su”, hence Rajan’s misconception.
69 · Amardeep said
That comment sure puts the que??? in eloquent.
“p.s. i have muslim fundamentalist relatives who went to gujarat after the riots. all the muslim fundies were really happy about what happened because they never saw such a boon of new recruits and the segregation from hindus was what they wanted in the first place. really disturbing to see my uncle grinning broadly about the outcome of the riots.”
I don’t want to comment on your uncle, but i have had interaction with several muslims after Gujrat and the overwhelming sentiment wasn’t rejoice, but fear! Don’t generalize exceptions please. India accommodates all religions in a way that is not seen in the west. The special privilges for religious institutions extend to all religions including hinduism. Trying to instill insecurity in a place where hindus are the majority and power is at the very least reprehensible.
Keywords: cursory, mythology, complex
The Staines Case and verdict back in 2003 is relevant recent history. Also, interesting comparison to be explored between the “success” of missionaries working in India’s Northeast states (where Christianity has taken a strong hold among the ethnic populations) and Orissa.
Citing Kancha Illiah in anything other than a study on the lack of standards of Indian Universities or the chemical structure of sh!t is surprising.
To draw a suitable scholarly comparison, I could quote Ratzel towards making a case for justifying the holocaust… It is even more relevant because, Illiah and his ilk want just that (a holocaust) for anyone who DARES to still categorize themselves as a Brahmin(you know the racist group,that has to be blamed-for-all-India’s-Ills, one-of-those-Indian-to-be-condemned-thoroughly-in-order-to-preserve-second-generation-American-status thinger about India)…
Amardeep, Rajan had as much a point in accusing Amartya of being a bed-wetter as you had in questioning whether Tunku had a screw loose. All in context, mind you. And, what you did not point out is that Rajan withdrew his comment and so did you. And that you didn’t do so raises questions about intellectual honesty. Ahh, if this were a discussion in an academic environment…
Rajan made several other points–others, I suggest you read his follow-ups in the link Amardeep included–and I emphasize how pertinent they remain to this current discussion. Since it seems evident Amardeep took umbrage at Rajan’s tone (and was Amardeep’s any better?) and missed the gist of what Rajan said and enough time has gone by and still it hasn’t sunk in it’s unlikely Amardeep and those in his camp will see what I said at the outset:”…Amardeep, you might want to consider what Rajan meant–and I believe he had a valid point, maybe more–and how it aligns with Moornam’s point(s).”
Hinduism is a religion that does not naturally proselytize (the ghar vaapsi rituals are a reactionary movement) To define the Hindu religion itself is a tough task,as it is not a rigid, fixed, monotheistic faith built on a framework of dogma, commandments and the holy book. It is a system of belief that has evolved in the Indian subcontinent over thousand of years of assimilation of the philosophy, metaphysics, rituals and traditions of innumerable tribes, clans and ethnicities. ‘Brahminism,’as some call it, is one aspect of it, but so is tantricism, animism and atheistic streams of thought. At the core of the faith is the belief in the sacredness of the land of Bharatvarsha (a lot different from Akhanda Bharat).It’s epics, myths, avataras and holy places are all based in the land, and provide a common, if fragile thread that holds the Indian society together against the opposing forces of disparate ethnicities, languages and cultures. Conversion of people to non Indic faiths changes some of the variables in this complex dynamics by orientating the convert towards a new axis based in a land far away from the indic center of gravity.There is a significant population of Indian Christians, Muslims, Zoroastrians, who are native, assimilated and indistinguishable from any Hindu citizen of India. These are old societies which have developed an Indic narrative to their cultures while having lent their flavour to hinduism (Sufi and Catholic saints, Sai Baba and many more). The new wave of conversion is a different kettle of fish. You can only go so far in a deeply religious country if you seek to aggressively harvest souls, denigrating the majority religion in the process. That upsets the prevailing social equilibrium. Indian society is changing (I think moving towards intolerance, mirroring the global trend), and with the examples of Kashmir Valley and the recently Christian North East in front of us, fuels the backlash of the Ultra Right.The green flags waved in Kashmir, the land of Kashyapa, are enough to send alarm bells ringing in most Indian minds. The Bajrang dal vandals are idiots and criminals, and should be dealt with strictly, but the larger question remains on the morality of conversion and it’s impact on the larger national interest. I think the way out is by Hindu organisations to organise themselves and level the playing field.
82 · Lupus Solitarius said
The example of Hindu ULFA is ignored since it violates the narrative of secessionist movements in India being driven by religious hostility.
82 · Lupus Solitarius said
dont worry, india’s aggressive population replenishment program will ensure that you dont run out of souls any time soon to peddle the shamanism of your choice.
I have always found hard-sell Christian evangelical types extremely annoying, especially because, when I was growing up in the US, their political views were almost always way over on the fanatical right. Also, I hold Christian missionaries responsible for doing some severe damage to India’s cultural heritage, especially in places like the Northeast, where they have wiped out indigenous music, dance, folklore and literature to an alarming degree. So, when I first moved to India in 1998, I didn’t have much time or sympathy for the religious Christian minority.
However, after living here for a decade, I have come to think very differently. I now realize that in a place like Orissa, where caste discrimination persists in some of its worst forms, conversion to Christianity represents the only way out for many people from an extremely oppressive social system. You can talk about the sublime philosophy and metaphysics of Hinduism to an Orissa Dalit until you’re blue in the face, but what he sees are a bunch of people telling him that it’s his god-given station in life to clean up upper-caste people’s shit. I’d convert too, you know? In fact I might well be tempted to join a Maoist insurgency.
It’s easy for left-leaning American-born Desis, so used to resenting the American Christian right, to get mixed up on this issue. But a hate crime is a hate crime. Please don’t try to defend what’s happening in Orissa and Gujarat.
I don’t think this is just a matter of Hindus vs. Christians either.
Oct 10 India Today
Also from India Today
A few more honest brokers and a little less selective outrage and conspicuous compassion, would do India a whole lot of good.
shanthi shanthi shanthi
Class it up, people! Seriously, where did you hang out? I must say I have never rubbed shoulders with such types (though they do sound annoying) . . . .
Suuny@83 said “The example of Hindu ULFA is ignored since it violates the narrative of secessionist movements in India being driven by religious hostility.” Apples and oranges. The ULFA is NOT a religious organisation, nor are it’s purported aims establishment of a Hindu state. It is an ethnic movement,though it’s origins have a strong link to the large scale Bangladeshi immigration and demographic change in Assam http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/3/1/3/p33134_index.html.
Palate cleanser@84 said “dont worry, india’s aggressive population replenishment program will ensure that you dont run out of souls any time soon to peddle the shamanism of your choice.”- Huh? I am not into spreading the good news, dude.
If the core issue is “forced” conversions, even then I don’t understand what the problem is. If someone is “bribed” with rice and dahl to convert from one religion to the next and they do so to fill their bellies, so what? Why are these Hindus getting their chaddis in a twist? Similarly, if someone then wants to “re-convert” back to Hinduism, so be it. I really, really, really don’t get what the big deal over conversion is, no matter how it’s done.
88 · Lupus Solitairus said
oh, i thought your last sentence was advocating exactly that….
for all those here who protest loudly, what is the immorality of (uncoerced) conversion?
89 · Soca Chutney Mix said
imbalance in private financial prowess and competition for limited state resources ?
I’m largely with you (I don’t really see how Hinduism is affected by the # of adherents (I could frankly care less, and my parents are always griping about how crowded the temples are!), though I’m far from an expert on the topic), but I’m guessing that it’s something like an “incommensurability” argument–i.e., people who object to conversions that are “bought” in some way think that culture/religion should not be up for sale (like your kidney can’t be sold in most countries).
87 · rob said
rob, unfortunately us unclassy folks didn’t get to hang out with yale/harvard wasps all the time, and once in a while, were forced to mingle with the unwashed asian and asian-american masses… not to mention the hatted suited up persistent 8 am-door knockers when one is still paying the wages of a sinful friday night and saturday daybreak.
Depressing–Sheesh, I just felt “othered” by the depiction of ABD’s besieged by pushy evangelicals. 😉
Palate cleanser Please define uncoerced
95 · Lupus Solitarius said
please define coerced.
I don’t think the “deep” issue is coercion, it’s alienability. See Calabresi & Melamed, Two Views of the Cathedral, in the Harvard Law Review. (Take that, depressing! ;-0 )
97 · rob said
I think you meant “One View of the Cathedral” 😉
If the core issue is “forced” conversions, even then I don’t understand what the problem is. If someone is “bribed” with rice and dahl to convert from one religion to the next and they do so to fill their bellies, so what? Why are these Hindus getting their chaddis in a twist? Similarly, if someone then wants to “re-convert” back to Hinduism, so be it. I really, really, really don’t get what the big deal over conversion is, no matter how it’s done.
That’s right. I don’t see anything wrong with conversions whether for money or jobs. What difference does it make if someone else starts worshipping only one God instead of twenty for a few bags of rice. I think the problem in Orissa is that after converting they continue to get the privileges offered by the government.
Amardeep, thanks for the post. It is a balanced effort.
To understand the historic relationship between the Kandhas, Panas and local Hindu political and religious establishments, Felix Padel’s Sacrifice of Human Being: British Rule and the Konds of Orissa (1995/2001) is a better source than Kancha Illiah. One would also benefit from taking a look at Barbara Boal’s works in the context.
Hinduism for the Kandhas is not foreign in the same way as Christianity would have been in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As the dominant tribal population of the area, Kandhas played an integral role in the formation of local Hindu kingdoms from early medieval times. The relationship between the Hindu king and his Kandha ‘subject’ was one of patronage and symbolic recognition.The king would endorse the alleged Kandha rite of human sacrifice, and the low-land Kandhas would participate in the Dusserah festivals. A famous and canonical low-land Oriya Kandha poet of 19th century called himself a devout Vaisnaba and described his visit to the temple of Jagannatha at Puri. This close relationship, developed through centuries of co-existence, cannot endorse a view that Hinduism (I am not sure how you use the word formal here) was foreign to the Kandhas in the same way as Christianity which arrived in the Kandhamals in the late 19th century. However, on the basis of the close proximity between the Hindu religio-political establishment and the Kandhas it will become difficult to argue that Kandhas were Hindus to start with. It will perhaps be useful to construct a distinction between the low-land and High-land Kandhas. The former group, at a given point in time, was perhaps more ‘at home’ with Hindu practices than the latter.